Social Class in Classroom free essay sample

In contrast with these 20% of Americans a long with the other 80% are a lot of differences when it comes to learning in the classroom. According to Lee Warren of Harvard University, â€Å"In many parts of the country, class differences are sharply defined by accent: people talk like the neighborhood they came from†(Class in the Classroom, 2) where as someone from a more â€Å"run-down† neighborhood might have a less sophisticated vocabulary, just because they do not speak that way on a daily basis. However, that is all stereotypical. People â€Å"wrongly anticipate the knowledge or potential of specific classes of children† and as a result â€Å"children from high-class families are sometimes viewed as being more intelligent than those from lower social classes† (Social Class-Effects 1), which is not right at all. The amount of money one has, should not define how educated they are. â€Å"Education is based on learning specific skills, forming lifelong work habits and developing mature coping skills according to each students unique abilities† (FISD Career and Technical Education Center Handbook Addendum 4) not income and socioeconomic status. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Class in Classroom or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Not only is it stereotypical that students who come from a lower class family, have a weaker vocabulary, but some tend to believe that their level of academic readiness can not measure up to those from a higher social class. As quoted from Lee Warren, â€Å"differing levels of preparation and academic sophistication can sometimes be attributed to class background and the quality of previous schooling† (Class in the Classroom 2). While the type of previous schooling and preparation for school can demonstrate a student’s ocioeconomic class background; In contrast, author Richard Rothstein argues in his article, â€Å"The Social and Economic Realities That Challenge All Schools† that: â€Å"the success of some lower class students proves nothing about the power of schools †¦between low-income and middle-class children†¦on average, the achievement of low-income students is below that of middle-class students, but there are always some middle-class students who achieve below typical low-income levels; similarly, some low-income students achieve above typical middle-class levels. Which demonstrates that the type of school a student attends can be effective towards their education, however, it is up to the student to take advantage of the education they are receiving. Just because an upper class student attends a school that has very high academic standards does not mean that they are smart. It just represents the type of school he or she went to. The student can be failing every single class, because it is so hard, while a lower income class student can be a valedictorian of his/her school. To conclude, the type of school might display the student’s family income, however, grades are a different story. Anyone can be rich and quite blunt. Social class has a large effect on the students’ academic interests as well. In regards to that, it is also believed that those who come from the lower social class would have different academic interests in comparison to those of the upper class. In the article, â€Å"Class in the Classroom†, Warren interprets that â€Å"students from different class backgrounds can have very different reactions to material presented and very different interests in the material. † (3). When one goes off to college, they choose a major that best suits them and their interests, in some cases, â€Å"students from lower socioeconomic status families will disportionately select into majors with lower academic demands† (Siebens, Choice of Major and Continued Class Disadvantage in Higher Education 5);they are being pressured to do well in college and have to make sure that they will succeed because â€Å"disadvantaged students may be more sensitive to the risk of failure †¦students from low socioeconomic status families perceive their hazard of failure to be higher than others as well as†¦paying off tuition and fees, which are a large investment for these students†(Siebens, Choice of Major and Continued Class Disadvantage in Higher Education 4-5). Students of a lower socioeconomic status might choose what is portrayed as the â€Å"easiest major† just to get a degree, and most likely this person is probably the first out of his/her family to attend college, so the fact of getting a degree in any subject or field will be looked at as an accomplishment. These students also have more trouble paying for college, unless they receive financial aid, but the ones who do not receive it will go out of their way to pay for school. One will have to take out loans and pay them back, which is not easy without a well paying, stable job—thus pursuing a baccalaureate degree. In the lower social class of the United States, there are many factors that are being used to differentiate this small group from the middle and upper class students. A common reason found amongst most lower class students is the lack of confidence they all carry. According to James Rhem of NTLF, from the article â€Å"Social Class and Student Learning†: â€Å"Students from working-class backgrounds often lack confidence. They may have as much intelligence as students who come from wealth, but they see the world differently. They may, in fact, be more likely to lack academic skills and sophistication. They have less practice playing with ideas, conceptualizing and sometimes less practice in reading and writing. But even when they dont lack skills, they often remain uncertain of themselves, stay quiet in class, pick low-risk courses, and settle on very practical majors without allowing themselves to dream of more† (2). In other words, â€Å"these students are less able to work the system† (Warren, Class in the Classroom 1) and this means that they have more trouble finding out what to do, in terms of helping themselves. They are less exposed to ‘the college world† since there is no one these students can relate to—many other students from other socioeconomic status have some idea of what to do in college, because others who have attended college, such as siblings and parents, give proper advisement to these students, when help is neededas a result of â€Å"being able to work the system†. Middle class students (in contrast to the lower income students) are the ones who are â€Å"fairly† more prepared. The middle class students, â€Å"on average, receive more support at home and come to school more prepared for the work in class†(Kahlenberg, Middle Class Schools for All 2). Because they receive more support at home, they will have more people to be there for them in a sense of advisement. Middle class students are more prepared (as stated previously), these students have more exposure, in other words, being able what to expect in class, or being able to keep up with the work. Besides aving lower self esteem, â€Å"these students tend to have a higher level of motivation; based on their own clear idea of what an education can and will do for them† (Rhem, Social Class and Student Learning 2). These students have a higher level of motivation and strong work ethic since they â€Å"can manage hair-raising schedules of work, family, and college, pulling off demands of each with grit and a clear sense of purpose†(Warren, Class in the Classroom 2); thus giving these students the â€Å"psychological tools† they need to survive through out college. Although they might be more motivated, majority of the time, they are stressed out because of other factors that can get in the way of studying, such as work or helping out the family. Lower class students are usually depended on more, because of the many chores that boost their work ethic. In contrast to the middle and upper social class, the lower class students usually have larger priorities. Most of these students have to work while attending school, which can be a good and bad thing. On the bright side, students who work and go to college are more able to â€Å"value a higher education and know how to work hard† (Warren, Class in the Classroom 1) but on the other hand, â€Å"lower class students do drop out of college in higher rates then those of the middle and upper class† (Siebens, Choice of Major and Continued Class Disadvantage in Higher Education 4-5) because of the other priorities that become a burden on attending class and studying. Many lower income students do not have enough money to pay for college, so there’s a chance they can also qualify for financial aid. According to the article, â€Å"Simplifying Financial Aid Process Improves College Access for Low-Income Students,† there are nearly â€Å"17,000 low income students that were not aware of financial aid forms and higher education costs and prevented attending college† (LOOK UP WEBSITE CITATION). The students, who are aware of the forms to fill out to receive financial aid, are lucky since they do not have to invest as much money as the middle and upper class students do for a college education. Middle class families have had an even more difficult time paying for college because they are often declined of financial aid. While campaigning for office in 2000 and 2004, â€Å"President Bush promised to increase this assistance and give students â€Å"more access to and more choice in higher education† (The Middle Class Squeeze 8) although there has not been much change to increase the amount of financial aid given to lower and middle income class students. The advantage of getting the â€Å"governments money† to pay off college tuition is a huge factor in the amount of lower income class students who attend college. On the contrary, there are middle class students who also can not afford to pay $10,000+ tuition a year, but do not receive any aid. Students from upper class families usually have better advantages over those of the lower and middle class. These students tend to be more â€Å"confident in their place, and are more likely to speak up in class†(Warren, Class in the Classroom 2) and the studies of Turner and Sewell indicate that â€Å"upper class students generally have higher career aspirations that make college going imperative as the means of realizing their future ambitions† (The Social Context of Ambition). Because the upper class students have parents that earn an upper class salary, they tend to â€Å"be ambitious and value success, community responsibility, hard work and excellence (Warren, Class in the Classroom 2). † These students are ambitious, but they also succeed, as described by David H. Kamens of Northeastern University in the essay, â€Å"Social Class and College Dropout†: â€Å"With the exception of students from business families†¦academic success does tend to have more influence on students from high status families and less on those from lower class backgrounds. Perhaps this is because their aspirations are high, though are not contingent on superior academic performance. â€Å"(11). Upper class students also have more exposure to the world around them. Since majority of these students come from families of a large income, they can afford to Do we have to blame ones social class for the amount of education he or she receives? Absolutely not! One factor that can affect a person’s education attainment is the type of school they attended. According to the 2005 statistics in the National Assessment of Educational Progress, â€Å"given to fourth graders in math, for example, low-income students attending more affluent schools were almost two years ahead of low-income students in high-poverty schools. Indeed, low-income students given a chance to attend more-affluent schools performed more than half a year better, on average, than middle income students who attend high-poverty schools† (Kahlenberg, Middle Class Schools for All 2). From this data, it is clear to see that the type of school is what matters most, not income. Ones social income class should not be used to determine their intelligence, but to only advertise their yearly salary. Social class is a determinant used to define where a family stands in terms of salary and socioeconomic status. However, it is used to determine what will be offered to the family, for example, the type of school that each child will attend. But what it does not determine is the success of that student’s education attainment. Money can buy a college education yet, it will not buy literacy.

Leadership and management Essays (293 words) - Leadership

Leadership and management Essays (293 words) - Leadership Leadership and management:- Leadership Management In today's volatile, uncertainties, ambiguous and complex environment, leaders are required to deal with the emerging threats to handle the business operations effectively . As mentioned by Bolden (2016), unique leadership style and characteristics of managers identifies the abilities to lead the organization in positive direction by solving the complex business problems. Leadership and management in the organization enable the business to maximise efficiency so that the organization can achieve its goal successfully . Mainly, it is observed in most of the firm that senior management team is provided training on leadership styles so that they can assist their team for having business growth . Moreover, leadership quality also enables to gain power in politics which is required for starting a new policy. As commented by Saleem (2015), management and leadership are the important concept for delivering effective services to the customers. Although, these two terms are quite similar, however, these may consist of various types of skills, behaviour and outlooks. It is found that good managers require striving for being a good leader as they require adopting management skills effectively. On another note, Olins (2017) stated that leadership require having a distinct vision and being able to motivate their team for achieving the goal successfully. For an example, in organization, BHP Billiton's management team uses autocratic leadership style which enables the managers to implement high quality workforce. The company is found to use integral approach of leadership which prompt in in-depth discussions and team meeting that enable to maximise the potentials of leaders. This example of BHP Billiton shows that the leadership team of the company is effectively gaining communicatio n and other skills which help them to apply it in their workplace.

Politics in Portugal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Politics in Portugal - Essay Example In 1974, a left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The following year, Portugal granted independence to all of its African colonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986† (CIA – World Fact Book) During the past 3 000 years, Portugal has witnessed a constant ebb and flow of civilisations. Phoenician, Greek, Celt, Carthaginian, Roman and Arabic cultures have all left their imprint.(Europa) This paper details the politically relevant history, economy, culture and political situations of Portugal. Julius Caesar and Augustus conquered the province of Lusitania which was occupied by the early tribal people of Portugal. The territory adopted Roman ways of living and the language of Portuguese took its root from Latin. The invasion by Romans happened in the period of 1000 B.C. In the early 8th century Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula in which the early territory of Portugal was situated from Visigoths – the Germanic invaders. Muslim culture had its own impact and resulted in a large minority getting converted into Muslims. (Encyclopedia) Portuguese nation was created by the re-conquest of the territory by the Christians. The Moors were driven out of the territory by the King of Asturias during the 8th century. Alfonso VI of Castile is a key person in the Portuguese history and with the aid of France he won the war against the Moors to retain control over the Portuguese land. The dynasty descended with Henry of Burgundy and his son Alfonso Henriques who styled himself Alfonso I, King of Portugal. The country was recognized by Spain in the year 1143 and by Pope in the year 1179. The rule of A great task of recapturing other regions of Portugal from Moors was placed on the successors of Alfonso. The country of Portugal witnessed continuous strife ridden days because of the conflicts between

English - elements of poetry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

English - elements of poetry - Essay Example Sometimes, it works to look at the poem according to structure and note how one word or an entire line is associated to another within stanzas. In particular, I have observed that a poet’s choice of couplet, tercet, quatrain, cinquain, or sestet has something to do with the manner he would wish to convey the connotative essence of the piece. It is fascinating to know that poetry at present goes beyond a standard measure or is not confined to follow a limited structure and form for whether a poem is comprised of a lyrical, narrative, or descriptive features would necessarily depend on the main purpose of the author. Rhyme schemes make a good ingredient if the poet opts to express much delight in sound when writing in free verse which is not restricted by metrics. By personal experience, even if I prefer to go for an unrhymed blank verse, I discover significance in the proper application of sound and imagery for these elements effectively communicate the intensity of emotion or idea which the poet desires for the reader to comprehend besides symbolism. Explicating a poem is a way of providing it a literary analysis on the basis of its theme, figurative elements or devices employed during the writing process which may as well include consideration of the poet’s timeframe, historical setting, and other influences from which to draw further clues regarding the objectives and context by which a poem is written. I have specifically learned that one may not merely explicate a poem at random, stating what is conceived or felt without sufficient basis on the relevant lines of a work. Having read a poem more than once, I have managed to figure that analytical efforts to interpret a poem require profound examination of the techniques as the poet operates between mood and music. Normally, it is convenient to detect the tone at the initial stage for this says much about the subject and

Theories of Job Satisfaction and Organisational Commitment

Theories of Job Satisfaction and Organisational Commitment Job satisfaction Job satisfaction can be described as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the individual’s job or job experiences (Locke, 1976). Job satisfaction is a topic of wide interest to both people who work in organisations and people who study them. It is a most frequently studied variable in organisational behaviour research, and also a central variable in both research and theory of organisational phenomena ranging from job design to supervision (Spector, 1997). Traditionally, job satisfaction focuses on the feelings that an individual has about their job. However, what makes a job satisfying or dissatisfying does not depend only on the nature of the job, but also on the expectations that individuals have of what their job should provide (Lu, While Barriball, 2004). Organisational Commitment Organisational commitment has been defined as the degree to which employees believe in and accept organisational goals and desire to remain with the organisation (Mathis Jackson, 2000). Similarly, Wright and Noe (1996) defined organisational commitment as â€Å"the degree or extent to which employees strongly identify with the organisation and feel attached to it.† Although there are a variety of different definitions for organisational commitment, they all share the view that organisational commitment is a psychological state that characterises an employee’s relationship with their organisation and has implications for that employee continuing membership in the organisation (Meyer Allen, 1997). However, what differs among these definitions is the nature of the psychological state being described (Mowday, Steers Porter, 1979; Wiener, 1982). In order to acknowledge the different psychological states,Meyer and Allen (1991)developed a three-component model of organisati onal commitment. The first component is affective commitment, which refers to an employee’s â€Å"emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organisation† (Meyer Allen, 1991). The second component is continuance commitment, which involves the employee’s perceptions of the costs associated with leaving an organisation. The last component is normative commitment, which refers to an employee’s feelings of obligation to stay in the organisation. Organisational Citizenship Behaviours Organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) are voluntary employee behaviours that are not formally rewarded by the organisation, but contribute to either the success of the whole organisation or to the well-being of other employees (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). Examples of OCBs include: helping colleagues with their work, helping new members of staff, talking positively about the organisation to outsiders, and voluntarily going to functions that help the organisation’s image (Lee Allen, 2002). Research on OCB’s have shown that they are important as they improve both individual level (Rotundo Sackett, 2002) and organisational-level performance outcomes (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, Blume, 2009). It has been suggested that there are five different categories of OCBs including altruism, courtesy conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship (Organ, 1988). Furthermore, OCBs have been divided into two different types. Williams and Anderson (1991) divided up the dime nsions based on who the behaviours were directed towards. If the behaviour was directed towards other individuals in the workplace, there were classified as Organisational citizenship behaviour–individuals (OCBI), while behaviours directed at the organisation as a whole were classified as organisational citizenship behaviour-organisational (OCBO). For example, categories of OCBs such as altruism and courtesy are actions aimed at other employees and would therefore be classified as OCBIs.Whereas, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship are behaviours intended for the benefit of the organisation and would therefore be considered as OCBOs. Core Self-Evaluation sub-traits and their relation to organisational citizenship behaviour, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. There are a lack of studies linking the core self-evaluations factor to organisational citizenship behaviours. However, three of the core traits: self-esteem, locus of control, and emotional stability, are the most widely studied personality traits in personality and applied psychology (Judge Bono, 2001). In total, self-esteem, locus of control, and emotional stability have been the subject of more than 50,000 studies (Judge et al, 2002). Self-esteem is used to describe an individual’s overall self-evaluation of their competencies (Rosenberg, 1965). Simply put, self-esteem is a personal evaluation which reflects what people think of themselves as individuals. For example, Korman (1970) states that self-esteem reflects the degree to which the individual â€Å"sees themselves as a competent, need-satisfying individual†. Therefore, an individual with high self-esteem has a â€Å"sense of personal adequacy and a sense of having achieved need satisfaction in the past† (Korman, 1966). As well as the reflecting component of self-esteem, Pelham and Swann (1989) explain that self-esteem also consists of an affective (liking/disliking) component. For example, individuals with high self-esteem like who and what they are; agreeing with statements such as â€Å"I am a person of worth, on an equal plane with others† and â€Å"I am satisfied with myself† (Rosenberg, 1965). Overall, it is the self-e valuation and descriptive conceptualisation that individuals make and maintain about themselves. Locus of control refers to an individuals’ perception of the main causes of events in life. It can be divided into two categories: internal locus of control and external locus of control. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that they have control over the events and consequences associated with their lives, such as control over their own destinies. Therefore, they believe that the majority of their life experiences are determined by their own skills, abilities, and efforts. Whereas those with an external locus of control believe that life events are the result of circumstances outside their control. They believe that their destinies are controlled by external forces such as luck, chance, fate, or powerful others (Paulhus, 1983; Rotter, 1966). Emotional stability or neuroticism is perhaps the most enduring personality concept in psychology, as it is one of the dimensions of the widely studied five-factor model of personality. There are thousands of studies on the topic and the entire field of psychoanalysis and clinical psychology might be traced to the study of neurotic symptoms (Freud, 1910). Emotional stability represents individual differences in the tendency to experience distress (McCrae John, 1992). Typical behaviours associated with this factor include being anxious, depressed, angry, embarrassed, emotional, worried, and insecure (Barrick Mount, 1991). Generalised self-efficacy is described as an individual’s estimate of their fundamental ability to cope, perform, and be successful. This can be seen as the ability to persist and a persons ability to succeed with a task. As an example, self-efficacy directly relates to how long someone will stick to a workout regime or a diet. High and low self-efficacy determine whether or not someone will choose to take on a challenging task or write it off as impossible. Relation of Self-Esteem, Locus of Control, Neuroticism, and Generalised Self-Efficacy to Job Satisfaction. Judge et al. (1997) hypothesised that core self-evaluations would be related to job satisfaction through both direct and indirect means. Indeed, Judge et al (1998) found that the four traits, treated as a single latent construct, were significantly related to job satisfaction. This study also found that self-esteem, generalised self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism were each independently significantly correlated with job satisfaction. Therefore, suggesting both direct and indirect links with job satisfaction. Despite the vast amount of research on dispositions and job satisfaction, Judge and Bono (2001) found there were no meta-analysis of the relationship between any of the four traits and job satisfaction. The relationships of these traits to job satisfaction had been discussed in reviews of the literature with respect to self-esteem (Tharenou, 1979), locus of control (Spector, 1982), and emotional stability (Furnham Zacherl, 1986), however the size and extent of these relationships, and the variability in these relationships across studies, had not been established. Therefore, Judge and Bono (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 169 correlations. The found that the correlations of the core traits with job satisfaction ranged from 0.24 for emotional stability to 0.45 for generalised self-efficacy. All of these correlations generalised across studies (more than 90% of the individual correlations were greater than zero). Other research has also supported these finding, for example, studies have suggested that LOC is a significant predictor of job satisfaction (Judge, Erez, Bono, Thoresen, 2003), whereby individuals with an internal LOC reported higher levels of job satisfaction (Martin, Thomas, Charles, Epitro McNamara, 2005). Furthermore, several studies have shown that direct measures of neuroticism are negatively related to job satisfaction (Furnham Zacherl, 1986; Smith, Organ, Near, 1983; Tokar Subich, 1997), indicating that individuals with high neuroticism have lower job satisfaction. Moreover, there are theoretical reasons to expect a positive relationship between the four sub-traits and job satisfaction. In the case of self-esteem, Locke, McClear and Knight (1996) posited that, A person with a high self-esteem will view a challenging job as a deserved opportunity which he can master and benefit from, whereas a person with low self-esteem is more likely to view it as an undeserved opportunity or a chance to fail. Research has in fact supported this, suggesting that individuals with high self-esteem maintain optimism in the face of failure, which makes future success and future satisfaction more likely (Dodgson Wood, 1998). Another theoretical mechanism linking these traits to job satisfaction is suggested by Kormans (1970) self-consistency theory. Kormans theory predicts that individuals with high self-esteem choose occupations consistent with their interests, which would lead to greater levels of job satisfaction. More generally, Kormans theory predicts that hi gh self-esteem individuals will engage in a broad array of behaviours and cognitions that reinforce their self-concept. Similarly, Spector (1982) suggested that individuals with an internal locus of control should be more job satisfied because they are less likely to stay in a dissatisfying job and are more likely to be successful in organisations. With respect to neuroticism, McCrae and Costa (1991) noted that neuroticism is related to lower well-being because individuals who score high on neuroticism are predisposed to experience negative affects. Negative affect, in turn, is negatively related to job satisfaction (Brief, 1998; Spector, 1997). Finally, Judge et al. (1997) argued that generalised self-efficacy should affect job satisfaction through its association with practical success on the job. Because individuals with high self-efficacy deal more effectively with difficulties and persist in the face of failure (Gist Mitchell, 1992), they are more likely to attain valued outco mes and thus derive satisfaction from their jobs. Relation of Self-Esteem, Locus of Control, Neuroticism, and Generalised Self-Efficacy to Organisational Commitment. The four sub-traits have also been studied independently with regards to their relationship with organisational commitment. In terms of self-esteem, a review of the literature by Pierce Gardner (2004) identified several studies which report a significant and positive relationship between self-esteem and organisational commitment (Gardner Pierce, 1998, 2001; Lee, 2003; Phillips Hall, 2001; Ragins Cornwell, 2000; Riordan, Weatherly, Vandenberg Self, 2001; Tang Ibrahim, 1998; Tang, Kim O’Donald, 2000; Tang, Singer Roberts, 2000; Van Dyne Pierce, 2004). Correlations range between .12 and .64. These findings suggest that employees with high levels of self-esteem are more committed to their organisations than those individuals with low self-esteem. There are also some studies relating an individual’s locus of control to organisational commitment. Coleman, Irving, and Cooper (1999) conducted a study on the relationship between locus of control and organisational commitment. The results revealed that internal locus of control was related to affective commitment, while external locus of control was associated with continuance commitment. Furthermore, a study by Igbeneghu Popool (2011) provides empirical evidence to show that locus of control has a significant inverse relationship with organisational commitment. These findings are similar to research done two decades ago in which organisational commitment was found to be positively related to internal locus of control (Luthans, Baack, Taylor, 1987). Neuroticism has been found to be significantly related to organisational commitment (Erdheim, Wang Zickar, 2006). Cui (2010) found that neuroticism was significantly related to the continuance commitment part of organisational commitment. It has been shown that neurotic individuals tend to experience more negative life events than other individuals (Magnus, Diener, Fujita, Pavot, 1993). These findings directly relate to continuance commitment, which may develop out of an employee’s fear of the costs associated with leaving their current position (Meyer Allen, 1997). This is to the extent that when negative events occur in a highly neurotic individual’s job, the individual may feel more apprehensive about facing a new work environment that could provide even harsher experiences. Therefore, they are more likely to have high levels of continuance commitment. Once again, research found that self-efficacy was a significant predictor of organisational commitment (Bogler Somech, 2004). Saleem, Saba Adnan (2012) explored self-efficacy as a predictor of organisational commitment among bank employees. Correlational and multiple regression analyses indicated that self-efficacy was significantly positively correlated organisational commitment. Wu and Short (1996), who studied the relationship between teacher empowerment and teacher job commitment and job satisfaction, found that among the six subscales that compose the teacher empowerment scale (SPES), professional growth, self-efficacy and status were significant predictors of organisational commitment. Relation of Self-Esteem, Locus of Control, Neuroticism, and Generalised Self-Efficacy to Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. The four sub-traits have also been studied separately in relation to organisational citizenship behaviour. Again, Pierce Gardner’s (2003) review found various studies showing that self-esteem was related to organisational citizenship behaviour. For example, Tang, Davis, Dolinski, Ibrahim, Sutarso Wagner (2002) examined self-esteem and organisational citizenship behaviours with samples in the United States, Taiwan, Poland, and Egypt. In both their US and non-US samples they found significant and positive relationship between self-esteem and organisational citizenship behaviour. Van Dyne and Pierce (2004) who used both supervisor and peer ratings of citizenship behaviour, reported significant relationships between self-esteem and organisational citizenship behaviours. Self-esteem has been found to have significant relationships with both dimensions of organisational citizenship behaviours: altruism and compliance (Tang Ibrahim, 1998). Chattopadhyay (1999) observed a positive and significant relationship between self-esteem and altruism. Chattopadhyay and George (2001) also observed a positive relationship between self-esteem and altruism in their study of employees in a computer manufacturer. Furthermore, studies such as Lee (2003) looked at the five dimensions of citizenship behaviour (i.e., altruism, conscientiousness, courtesy, sportsmanship, and civic virtue) and found significant relationships between self-esteem and acts of good organisational citizenship. Tang, Singer, Roberts (2000) investigated the effect that public (other serving) and private (self-serving) motives on altruistic and conscientiousness acts of organisational citizenship, and found a positive relationship between public motives and self-esteem, and a negative relationship for private motives. They also report a positive relationship between self-esteem and both dimensions (altruism and conscientiousness) of citizenship behaviour. Overall, across this set of studies self-esteem correlated with organisational citizenship behaviour in the range between .23 for compliance and .83 for altruism, indicating that self-esteem has a more significant relationship with the altruistic dimension of OCBs. Two studies have found empirical support for the relationship between locus of control and citizenship performance. Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) reported a significant correlation (r = .26) between internal locus of control and organisational citizenship performance. More recently, Funderberg and Levy (1997) found a .33 correlation between locus of control and self-reports on the altruism dimension of OCB, but a negative correlation of .34 with peer ratings on the same OCB dimension. Facteau, Allen, Facteau, Bordas Tears, (2000) found low negative correlations between locus of control and citizenship performance. Neuroticism (emotional instability) has a negative relationship with citizenship behaviour. Those who score high in neuroticism tend to be more preoccupied with their own anxieties and presumably do not have the emotional stamina to concern themselves with others problems or general system requirements unrelated to their own immediate needs (Smith, Organ Near, 1983). Bogler Somech (2004) found that self-efficacy was a significant predictor of OCB. Their results showed that self-efficacy, significantly predicted organisational commitment. The importance of self-efficacy as a predictor of all three outcomes can be understood if we relate to the original concept of self-efficacy developed by Bandura (1977). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is based on two dimensions that he labelled ‘‘outcome expectancy’’ and ‘‘efficacy expectancy’’. ‘‘Outcome expectancy’’ implies that an individual estimates that a given behaviour will result in certain outcomes. ‘‘Efficacy expectations’’ refer to behaviours toward the expected outcomes. Not surprisingly, where teachers report higher levels of self-efficacy, they exhibit more organisational behaviours. Teachers who have high expectations of themselves to perform effectively and successfully in school will car ry out extra functions beyond the formal ones and will feel more committed to their school and to the teaching profession.

Answers: Difference and Mrs Higgins

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Essentials of Health Information Management Essay

Source- oriented medical records are kept together by subject matters, such as data from all laboratory results. Progress notes are all kept together and are written in paragraph format; these entries are filed under a specific sectionalized area in the patient chart and are usually in chronological order. Many facilities use the chronological order because this is an easy way to locate the required documents. The major advantage is that information is organized together, which makes it easier to determine the assessment, treatment, and observations a particular department provided a patient. The major disadvantage is there is no possible way to quickly determine all of the patient problems or treatment that has been provided to the patient. Problem- oriented medical records are kept together by a problem number; with this a number is placed to each problem. This is the most traditional way that most physicians document his or her records. Progress notes are kept in a â€Å"SOAP for mat, which is S= subjective, O=objective, A= assessment, and P= plan of action.† (SOAP Notes, 2010) The problem oriented-medical records have four parts, which include a database, problem list, initial plan, and progress notes. The major advantage is the record format is the ease or progression through all the data. The data is organized into stratified sections, which is quicker to find information needed and allows for a more rapid review of multiple office vists over time. The major disadvantage is that this type of format requires additional training and commitment from the medical and professional staff. An integrated record is a combination of source- oriented and problem- oriented medical records. The records are arranged in a strict chronological order, regardless of the source of original information. This method keeps a good account of continual events as the events occur and this method makes it difficult to compare and coordinate the issues easily. References Farlex. (2011). The Free Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.medical-dictonary.thefreedictionary.com SOAP Notes. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.maexample.com/soap-notes.htm